PRECOMP Entry #5

PREFACE
March 2013 other possible titles: Barditus | Halfdan Bard | Hávamál-Charm 

Concepts to consider and address in up-coming blog entries: Of so-called Celtic culture
1) Celtic ritual traditions (Bardic/Druidic)
2) The Music of Seán Ó Riada
3) Sean-nós songs of Ireland  
4) Caoineadh Songs of Ireland
5) The Carnyx and the Celtic veneration of the "Boar"

WHAT IS AWEN?

The Bardic and Druid tradition have as their most common symbol the “Awen” or “three bars of light,” the common  symbol set above. The word “awen” means “inspiration” in Middle Welsh, and in Mesopagan Druidism it represents the primal sound and light caused by “the” Supreme Being pronouncing “His” name to create the universe. (from http://www.neopagan.net/DruidSymbols.html)

Awen derives from the Indo-European root *-uel, meaning 'to blow', and has the same root as the Welsh word awel meaning 'breeze'. (Jarman, , A guide to Welsh literature)

Three things (get it?) are important here, embodied in the visual aesthetic of this concept:

1) The number three
[Music and numbers, ready bedfellows all, there will be ample opportunity to organise musical details in groups of three].
2) The concept of poetic/artistic "inspiration"
[We have discussed how non-celtic sources described the use of Heroic poetry for inspiration, it seems that artistic inspiration is inexorably linked to the rites of Bards and Druids].
3) The literal definition as the infinitive "to blow"
[And here the conceptual nature withers and we have a more pragmatic, and direct link to the performance of the carnyx].


AWEN AS MANIFEST IN TEXT

The word “awen” is used by some modern Druids as a Celtic equivalent to the Sanscrit word “aum,” intoning it when doing trancework, thusly: “aah-ooo-enn...”
(from http://www.neopagan.net/DruidSymbols.html)
There is no historical backing for this, though, in previous posts in this series, we saw that the Barditus featured agreement tones that may have sounded, as suggested above, similar to Hindu/Asiatic meditative intonation.

From the nationalist collections of Poet/historian IoIo Morganwg (Edward Williams) we have, preserved, a segment of Bardic text from the late-Roman period (550 AD).


Ef gwneif beirdd byd yn llawen. (He will make the Bards of the world merry).

Dysgogan Derwyddon
Tra tra mor tra Brython.
(The Druids predict, that the Britons will continue as long as the sea).

http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/bim2/bim2001.htm

Interestingly, there is a triple-foot metric pattern, dominant in this excerpt (perfect for Awen concept).



AWEN AS MANIFEST IN MOVEMENT

And here comes the fiction/fantasy...

The image set atop this blog, these "beams of light", these "rays" of inspiration, are a simple and powerful visual for this unique set of religious beliefs. The relate-able nature of this symbol, its simple design and direct message, demands some form of homage in this contemporary adaptation of the Barditus, working title Trombonicus.

In this scoreless, musical project, the adaptation of the visual is usually a secondary thought. However, this basic, though poignant icon, could be outlined in the staging of the musicians.

Imagine outer circle is the plane of the battlefield, the dots (otherwise the trinity of the divine, a common sacred notion) are instead the position of the warrior bards, whilst the beams are the sounding trajectory of the carnyx, moving about the battle-field.

Thus, we have:

More dynamically than the sources above suggest, the beams of light (it seems to me) are more an exchange of the divine, rather than a mere bestowing of grace. Inspiration, particularly in the artistic sense, comes as a trade, from one to the next. The Bards may recite the words of the divine, though it is the ancient voice of the carnyx that alters these concepts into the sounds of the ether.  

For this contemporary adaptation of the Barditus, it seems an interesting notion to play out the form of the Awen icon, by setting the carnyx army on divisions of the three-prong trajectory, coupled with one of three Bardic characters.


FINAL THOUGHTS

Again, another very research heavy, though excellently informative segment of this blog; the gravitas of historical record is very exciting!

From this blog we have, now added to the performance/contemporary adaptation list:

1) New text
2) Movement/staging design 
3) The new importance of the number '3'


 

PRECOMP Entry #4

PREFACE
March 2013 other possible titles: Barditus | Halfdan Bard | Hávamál-Charm 

Concepts to consider and address in up-coming blog entries: Of so-called Celtic culture
1) Celtic ritual traditions (Bardic/Druidic)
2) The Music of Seán Ó Riada
3) Sean-nós songs of Ireland  
4) Caoineadh Songs of Ireland
5) The Carnyx and the Celtic veneration of the "Boar"
6) Neopaganism and the Drudic concept of "Awen"

 
HEROIC POETRY AND THE Hávamál

In research blog entry #3, much of the information and sources we explored, were brought to my attention by the independent research of Carla O'Harris. This includes one particular historical record, a source that comes to historians in the form of a complex multi-metric Saga. Specifically, verse #156 makes mention of the ritualistic practice of "shield-singing" as a preparation for battle:

 ...I sing under the shields,
and they go victoriously:
safe to the battle...

According to this poetic/mythological record, the peoples of Northern Europe were united in many cultural idiosyncrasies, including the tradition of vocalising under their shields before battle. I conclude, therefore, that this Hávamál  epic poem, is a plausible source for inspiration AND recitation during a re-enactment of the Barditus.

Tacitus and other non-Barbarian story-tellers, wrote of the practice of Heroic poetry recitation, exclaimed before battle to rouse the courage of the warriors peoples throughout the Northern Europe. Germanic tribes, Saxon bands, as well as the Celtic and Gaullish people of focus, are recorded to have used the Bardic tradition to enthuse and inspire.

Historical record suggests a mythological subject matter of these heroic recitations. Tales of great super-human warriors and their fearlessness exploits were the stuff of the sagas that were set in poetic verse. In this contemporary adaptation, the aforementioned Old Norse Hávamál is the recommended model for text recitation, how best to use this text will be discussed as follows.

For a version of the Hávamál with fulltext and translation by Dr. D.L Ashliman please visit: www.beyondweird.com/high-one.html
 


COMMENTARY ON THE TEXT OF THE Hávamál

As explained by David A. H. Evans in his book titled with the name attributed to this saga (published by the "Viking Society" of the University College of London), the Hávamál itself is a segmented work, an epic pieced together from multiple sources (Evans, 34). 

The fragmented nature of this sizable ancient text makes choosing from among its variety of verse, a difficult task. Some of Evans own commentary, on the Hávamál in historical context, elucidates some interesting facts that contributes to a tangible reading of the poem. Verses #146-#163 are known to scholars as a succinct collection of 18 spells or charms. Evans suggests that this setting of magic as poetic incantation, is perhaps the best demarcated of all the text sectors in the Hávamál collection (Evans, 34). This last segment of the epic, referred to by scholars as the Ljothatal, is a supposed link to Germanic paganism (Evans, 35).

As a byproduct of its piece-meal composition, each of the various segments of this conglomeration of poetic fragments conforms to different types of Germanic metric verse. This in-built rhythmic diversity is ripe for musical manipulation. Whilst the final Ljothatal segment of the epic is set in a song or ballad meter, other metric perculiarities include the use of Málaháttr verse in #144, a conversational style of poetic meter. 

Evans also makes note of some other interesting elements of Norse paganism, including the symbolic importance of the number, 9 (Evans, 30).


RECOMMENDED SEGMENTS OF THE TEXT OF THE Hávamál

Informed by the sources aforementioned, the following is the Composers recommendation for which segments of the Hávamál text are most appropriate for the contemporary adaptation of the Barditus:

#144

Veiztu hvé rísta skal? Veiztu hvé ráða skal? Veiztu hvé fá skal? Veiztu hvé freista skal? Veiztu hvé biðja skal? Veiztu hvé blóta skal? Veiztu hvé senda skal? Veiztu hvé sóa skal?

Do you know how you must cut [them]? Do you know how you must interpret? Do you know how you must colour? Do you know how you must try? Do you know how you must invoke? Do you know how you must sacrifice? Do you know how you must send? Do you know how you must kill?

#146-#163

146 Ljóð ek þau kann er kannat þjóðans kona ok mannskis mögr hjálp heitir eitt en þat þér hjálpa mun við sökum ok sorgum ok sútum görvöllum	I know the songs that no ruler's wife knows, nor anyone's son: the first is called "Help", and it will help you with disputes and griefs and absolutely all sorrows.
147 Þat kann ek annat er þurfu ýta synir þeir er vilja læknar lifa	I know a second which the sons of men need, those who want to live as physicians.
148 Þat kann ek it þriðja ef mér verðr þörf mikil hapts við mína heiptmögu eggjar ek deyfi minna andskota bítat þeim vápn né velir	I know the third: if great need befalls me for a fetter for my enemy, I can blunt the edges of my enemies, that weapons and staves do not bite for them.
149 Þat kann ek it fjórða ef mér fyrðar bera bönd at bóglimum svá ek gel at ek ganga má sprettr mér af fótum fjöturr en af höndum hapt	I know the fourth: if men put fetters on my limbs, I sing so that I can go: fetter springs from my feet and bond from my hands. (cf. Imma *)

150 Þat kann ek it fimmta ef ek sé af fári skotinn flein í fólki vaða flýgra hann svá stinnt at ek stöðvigak ef ek hann sjónum of sék	I know the fifth: if I see [3] a spear, [2] shot in malice to fly into a host, it does not fly so strongly that I cannot stop it, if I catch sight of it.
151 Þat kann ek it sétta ef mik særir þegn á rótum rams viðar ok þann hal er mik heipta kveðr þann eta mein heldr en mik	I know the sixth: if a warrior wounds me with the root of a strong tree * and calls forth hatreds from me, then the harms eat the man and not me.
152 Þat kann ek it sjaunda ef ek sé hávan loga sal um sessmögum brennrat svá breitt at ek honum bjargigak þann kann ek galdr at gala	I know the seventh: if I see a high [3] hall [2] to burn [3] around my table-companions, it does not burn so bright that I cannot save it, when I can sing the spell.
153 Þat kann ek it átta er öllum er nytsamligt at nema hvars hatr vex með hildings sonum þat má ek bœta brátt	I know the eighth, which [3] is useful [2] for all to take: wherever hatred grows among the sons of the prince, I can quickly cure it.
154 Þat kann ek it níunda ef mik nauðr um stendr at bjarga fari mínu á floti vind ek kyrri vági á ok svæfik allan sæ	I know the ninth: if I need to save my ship afloat I can calm the wind on the wave and lull the whole sea to sleep.
155 Þat kann ek it tíunda ef ek sé túnriðir leika lopti á ek svá vinnk at þeir villir fara sinna heimhama sinna heimhuga	I know the tenth: if I see witches playing in the air, I can so arrange it that they go astray from their proper shapes and proper thoughts.
156 Þat kann ek it ellipta ef ek skal til orrostu leiða langvini undir randir ek gel en þeir með ríki fara heilir hildar til heilir hildi frá koma þeir heilir hvaðan	I know the eleventh: if I must [3] lead old friends [2] to battle, I sing under the shields, and they go victoriously: safe to the battle, safe from the battle, they come safe from everywhere.
157 Þat kann ek it tólpta ef ek sé á tré uppi váfa virgilná svá ek ríst ok í rúnum fák at sá gengr gumi ok mælir við mik	I know the twelfth: if I see up in a tree a hanged corpse swinging, I carve and colour the runes that the man moves and speaks with me.
158 Þat kann ek it þrettánda ef ek skal þegn ungan verpa vatni á munat hann falla þótt hann í fólk komi hnígra sá halr fyr hjörum	I know the thirteenth: if I will [3] throw water [2] on a young warrior, he cannot fall, though he may come to battle the man does not fall before swords.
159 Þat kann ek it fjórtánda ef ek skal fyrða liði telja tíva fyrir ása ok álfa ek kann allra skil fár kann ósnotr svá	I know the fourteenth: if I must [3] reckon up [2] a troop [3] before gods [2] and men, [5] I know the details of all [4] the Æsir and the Elves -- the unwise man knows that not at all.

160 Þat kann ek it fimmtánda er gól Þjóðreyrir dvergr fyr Dellings durum afl gól hann ásum en álfum frama hyggju Hroptatý	I know the fifteenth, which Thjothreyrir sang, the dwarf, before the doors of Dellingr: He sang the might of the gods, the courage of the elves, the understanding of Hroptatyr.
161 Þat kann ek it sextánda ef ek vil ins svinna mans hafa geð alt ok gaman hugi ek hverfi hvítarmri konu ok sný ek hennar öllum sefa	I know the sixteenth: if I wish [3] to have all the heart and pleasure [2] of a cunning girl, I turn the feelings of the white-armed woman, and I change the whole of her mind.
162 Þat kann ek it sjautjánda at mik mun seint firrask it manunga man ljóða þessa mun þú Loddfáfnir lengi vanr vera þó sé þér góð ef þú getr nýt ef þú nemr þörf ef þú þiggr	I know the seventeenth, that [3] the youthful maid [2] will never avoid me; [5] Loddfafnir, you will [6] be lacking [4] these charms [6] for a long time, though it be good for you if you get them, useful if you take them, needful if you receive them.
163 Þat kann ek it átjánda er ek æva kennik mey né manns konu alt er betra er einn um kann þat fylgir ljóða lokum nema þeiri einni er mik armi verr eða mín systir sé	I know the eighteenth, which I never teach to maid or man's wife, -- everything is better when one person understands it, it belongs at the ending of spells -- to none but she alone who is wrapped in my arm or is my sister.

FINAL THOUGHTS

Portions of the Hávamál text must be memorized by certain vocalists for the performance of this work. As suggested by the sources, there is numerous historical evidence to develop a performance practice for vocalisation that will include a great variety in style/technique. This blog details the historiographical foundation for using this text, following entries will detail an exact outline for text use and performance practice for vocals.

MARK OLIVERIO

PRECOMP Entry #3

PREFACE
March 2013 other possible titles: Barditus | Halfdan Bard | Hávamál-Charm 

Concepts to consider and address in up-coming blog entries:
Of so-called Celtic culture
1) Celtic ritual traditions (Bardic/Druidic)
2) The Thor-like hero Halfdan
3) The Hávamál    
4) Sean-nós songs of Ireland
5) Caoineadh Songs of Ireland

THE BARDITUS ACCORDING TO O'HARRIS
I have continued to read, listen and watch, piecing together fragments of the history of the warrior musics of the Celts of Antiquity. Inamongst the various online resources I have utilized I have come across a web-forum chat, including some information and references, pertaining to my interest:

http://dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/voluspa_studies/message/682

Thanks to the research and translations of independent researcher Carla O'Harris, I now have additional sources, from the annals of military history, that suggest to the sound of Ancient Celtic music.

They chiefly study a tone fierce and harsh, with a broken and unequal murmur,
and therefore apply their shields to their mouths, whence the voice may by
rebounding swell with greater fulness and force. 

(Germania 3, Thomas Gordon translation.)

I am fascinated by three things here:

1) This notion of studying a tone (agreeing upon a tone perhaps?)
2) The sounding nature of a broken, (unperiodic?) murmur
3) The use of a shield as an amplification device

O'Harris presents some interesting information pertaining to the subject-matter/text of the Barditus:

Tell(s) of..."Hercules" : either Thor or the Thor-like hero Halfdan whom Saxo speaks as one of the early patriarchs who carried and fought with a club, and that him above all other heroes they sing
about as they are marching into battle. 

Here we have Hero-worship as the stuff of inspiration. Tales of the club-swinging ferocious warrior, may have been recited as the warrior frenzied themselves before battle. This same passage of the Tacitus was discuss in the first blog entry of this series.

O'Harris translates a passage of the Tacitus except (Germania 3)

"...nec tam vocis ille quam virtutis concentus videtur."

"Nor does it appear to be so much a voice/tone as the strength of
singing-together." (O'Harris).

The noise-based quality of the chant, as experienced by the Roman, appears to be of the most striking of the chants qualities. That it is referred to as "musical" seems contentious, however, there is a clear pre-determination, purpose and community about this noise making.

In another post, O'Harris translates from the same Tacitus, this seems to be backed-up by a Norse poem, the Hávamál:

From the description of Ammianus Paulus:
(The Barditus) ...began in a low voice and preserved its subdued colour, but the sound gradually increased, and at a distance it resembled the roar of the breakers of the sea.
http://dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/voluspa_studies/message/683


In her blogpost, O'Harris makes a case for the sound of Barditus as similar to the musical aesthetic of Tibetan throat-singing. Whilst the case is well made that THIS notion of singing would be very different to what is now known to the Western musical tradition, I think it would be unlikely that the Barditus' sounding aesthetic would resemble a tradition from Tibet. If we look to our own traditions, vocal traditions, that are uniquely European, thrive in contemporary/folk traditions.

In my humble musical experience, I ponder the current state of the following, and how these traditions are linked to our ancestors:

1) Appalachian folk singing
2) Coarse vocal techniques in Scandinavian Metal genres
3) Balkan choral music

All of these, have ancestral links to a Celtic/Germanic past-time.  I will draw upon these for inspiration towards the expressive qualities of these contemporary-adaptation of the "Barditus".

NEW WARRIOR WORDS
Extracted from this weeks readings and texts, some new words will be added to the Barditus/Trombonicus word-hoard.

VIRTUTIS                        [latin] -          with vigour
CONCENTUS                  [latin] -          with togetherness
FRACTUM                       [latin] -          broken or subdued
ASPERITAS                     [latin] -          with harshness, roughness
MURMUR                        [latin] -          with harshness, roughness


CONCLUSIONS
The wealth of historical information is tantalizing, the musical possibilities, astounding. I am excited to draw all of these components together, in order to develop a cohesive and convincing whole.

This is what I will settle on:

1)  There will be a sustained unified vocalisation (as described above)
2)  There hero-worship poetry (as described above/possibly taken from the Hávamál)
3)  There will be a toneless (noise-based) vocalisation like the crashing of waves (as described above)
4)  There will be the sounds of "dreaded women" (as described in Tacitus' Histories book IV)
5)  All vocalisations will be accompanied by the striking of metal objects (as described in Silius Italicus)

SUPPLEMENTAL MEDIA

Since the last entry, I have posted the first of the Trombonicus Podcasts. These soundcloud files will be the only sounding guide to the preparation of/and performance of this adaptation of Ancient Celtic warrior music. There will be a series of podcasts for vocalisation as well as trombone-tone production.

You can listen to Trombone instructional part #1, here:   
http://trombonicuspodcasts.blogspot.com/ 

FINAL THOUGHTS
The coming editions will be lighter on the research and source listing, moving towards an instructional record for performance of this contemporary adaptation of the "Barditus" or working title "Trombonicus".

MARK OLIVEIRO

PRECOMP Entry #2

PREFACE
February 2013 other possible titles: Barditus | Stabreim | War-Charm 
Concepts to consider and address in up-coming blog entries:
Of so-called Celtic culture
1) The Druid tradition
2) The Bardic tradition
3) The Augur tradition
4) The Barditus chant in the research of Carla O'Harris
     http://dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/voluspa_studies/message/682

5) Sean-nós songs of Ireland

6) Caoineadh Songs of Ireland
 
BACK TO THE CARNYX
I have continued to listen intently to all the tracks on the John Kenny 'The Voice of the Carnyx'  and 'Forest ~ River ~ Ocean' CD. I want to buy more of these, many of the compositions are incredible, fascinating, ancient-beyond-words.


As an aide to the further development of this re-exploration of an ancient performance tradition, centered around the ancient Carnyx, this blog with focus on a survey of the current research of trombone /carnyx specialist John Kenny.



Coming soon will be the first of the instruction pod-casts which will include demonstrations on how to create Carnyx like sounds on modern trombones / brass.



CARNYX AS BASIC BRASS TUBULAR RESONATOR
The carnyx, from my observations and listening experience thus far, is a very simple instrument. It is valveless, though large with a long body, it is capable of reproducing but a single harmonic series. As the mouth piece is wide, it seems that the fundamental can be manipulated, this low first partial seem ripe for some resonant and interesting timbrel variation.


Whilst listening to a number of the John Kenny tracks, I began to catalogue the various partials (pitches) and techniques possible of a primitive single fundamental brass instrument.

As a basic list of timbrel variety and technique, the John Kenny vocabulary for the instrument, includes:

- Flutter tonguing
- Ascending and descending harmonic glisses
- Circular breathing
- Partial accentuation
- Multiphonics (harmonic and enharmonic)
- sfortzando attacks
- harmonic trills
- double and triple tonguing attacks
- dynamic swell affects
- instrument shake effects


My aim to limit the written document of this process again was again thwarted by my scribblings at the piano, shown here:

The B-harmonic series with notes. All bracket pitches are used as sub-sets in the pitch content of Kenny's 'Voice of the Carnyx'.

WARRIOR WORDS
I have imagined, of all this talk in my previous entry on the sound of these low brass-beasts and the screaming throngs around them, that there would be a connection between spoken and instrumental voice in an exchange of communication. Perhaps there were those offer a commands to the carnyx army which then amplified them across a wide spanning battle-field or ceremonial plateau.

Some ideas for the voiced vocabulary of commands, here:

ALLU                        [gaullish] -          to go
AWEN                       [welsh] -              to blow
BANATLO                [gaullish] -          sweep
BATTU                      [gaullish] -          to beat
BOURACH               [scots]-                mess
BUNDA                    [gaullish] -           base
BRACU                     [gaullish] -          pitch
BRUGE                     [gaullish] -          to roar
CANTIGA                 [gaullish] -          song
CEARR                     [scots]-                left
CEANIM                   [irish]-                 to wail
CRION                      [scots]-                to shrink
CLOCH                     [welsh]-               bell
DRULLO                  [gaullish] -           shred
FIANNA                   [irish]-                  small band of warriors
GU LEOR                 [scots]-                 until enough
GOBE                       [gaulish]-              mouth
HANVAL                  [breton]-               similar
KYBOSH                  [irish]-                  to end
MENHIR                   [cornish]-             long foundation
MOD                         [scots]-                 assemble
RUSCO                     [gaullish] -            bark
SHINDIG                  [scots]-                 skip and jump
SLUAGH GHAIRM [scots]-                 battle-cry
TAK / TAKA             [scots]-                 take
TOIR                          [irish]-                 to persue
TOISEACH               [scots]-                 front
VIRU                         [gaullish] -            to deviate, veer
YCH A FI                  [welsh]-                gross

FINAL THOUGHTS
I look forward to trying out some of the 'basic' sounds of the carnyx as adapted for trombone. It will be my aim to have these recorded and ready to imitate for the full ensemble, so they are able to be re-called at the command of 'warrior-words'.


MARKOLIVERIO

PRECOMP Entry #1

PREFACE
February 2013 other possible titles: Barditus | Stabreim | War-Charm 
At the closing of our last collaboration, Jeremy (can-do) Stones, requested another movement inspired piece, for ensemble, with a fun historical theme.

The working title of this work is, Trombonicus. A mash word featuring Jeremy's instrument and our mutual love of the absurd Television series on STARZ Spartacus: Blood and Sand etc.

Fashioning this far-fetched concept as a more serious historical research project, I have decided to investigate new historical recontextualisations of the modern trombone.We all know of the sackbut, of course, however, is there something older?

Somewhere?


CARNYX
Introducing the CARNYX:
An ancient trumpet like instrument, used by Ironage Celtic Warriors.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnyx (for more info than you need!)

Julius Caesar wrote about them during the Gallic Wars. 2100 years of Iron-worked bass-horn awesomeness.

A well respected trombonist (the relevance is mounting!), John Kenny, has been integral to the recreation process, both as researcher and performer.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hVAWwWi0DbE (live performance with a Carnyx!)

The voice of the ancients! Incredible!

This ancient Gallic/Germanic instrument has led me to research any contemporary accounts of celtic-martial music from around the time of the BC/AD change-over.

TACITUS
Germania [http://www.ourcivilisation.com/smartboard/shop/tacitusc/germany/chap1.htm]
Tacitus writes of  a chant called the Barritus, in which the Germans beckoned their great Heroes forth, like the Hellenic Hercules.

Histories book IV [http://classics.mit.edu/Tacitus/histories.4.iv.html]
Tacitus makes mention of the Batavian war-song with the shrieks of dreaded women.

Annales book I [http://classics.mit.edu/Tacitus/annals.1.i.html]
A moonlight vigil with brazen trumpets and horns, lamenting with joy and sorrow, the victorious dead.

Annales book IV [http://classics.mit.edu/Tacitus/annals.4.iv.html]
Here the sounds of war-songs is combined with the noise of clashing weapons.

SILIUS ITALICUS
Punica Book III [http://archive.org/stream/punicasi01siliuoft#page/138/mode/2up]
Celtic pre-war music rites include the stamping of feet and beating of shields in time with music.

POLYBUS
Histories Book II [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/2*.html]
The dreadful din of innumerable horn-blowers ordered the formation of the army as war-songs and cries ran out over the blasting of trumpets.


FINAL THOUGHTS
Lots of material above. I will continue to populate this list.
As this is the only written record of this composition, all of these broad concepts must be committed to memory, and eventually, consolidated in the first of a series of instructional podcasts.


MARKOLIVERIO